Applying American
Motivation,Leadership and Organization Management Theories to Chinese Organizations: The Cultural Synergy Approach
Abstract
About a century ago, the centers of theorizing about what we now call “management” lay in the Old World. We can trace the history of management thought as far back as we want – at least to parts of the Old Testament of the Bible, and to ancient Greece. Sixteenth-century European “management” theorists include Niccolo Machiavelli (Italy) and Thomas More (Great Britain); early twentieth-century theorists include Max Weber (Germany) and Henri Fayol (France). But during the past 80 years, the United States of America has become the world’s largest producer and exporter of management theories covering such key areas as motivation, leadership, and organization.
American management theories have achieved great success at home by building a large number of small companies into top multinationals in the world, some of which are even wealthier than some independent nations. Since China’s opening-up and reform over twenty years ago, globalization, with its great force, brought many kinds of American management theories here. From then on, large numbers of theorists and entrepreneurs have tried to apply those “advanced” American theories to Chinese organizations. However, few of them have succeeded, for they have ignored one particularly important factor—— cultural differences between U.S.A. and China. They have ignored that all people see the world in the way they have learned to see it. Only to a limited extent can they, in their thinking, step out of the boundaries imposed by their cultural conditioning——every one is culturally conditioned. This applies to the author of a theory as much as it does to the ordinary citizen: Theories reflect the cultural environment in which they were written. Written by American theorists, these American management theories, verified in American management practices, reflect an American culture background, which is quite different from the Chinese. Many aspects of these two cultures are even conflicting. It is these conflicting cultural values between the two countries that hinder the successful application of American management theories to Chinese organizations. Therefore, an approach that can integrate the differences between U.S. and China so as to assure the successful theories application is urgently needed. This approach is cultural synergy.
Cultural synergy builds upon the very differences in the world’s people for mutual growth and accomplishment by cooperation. Through collaboration, it emphasizes similarities and common concerns, and integrates differences to enrich human activities and systems. By combining the best in varied cultures and seeing the widest input, multiple effects and complex solutions can result. Although the United States and China have a great deal of cultural differences, the common core values of thrift and perseverance provide the foundation for cultural synergy between these two diligent nations. It is this synergy between the two cultures that provides China with the effective approach to apply American management theories to its own organizations and produce great management effect.
In order to make a relatively profound study of this subject, the thesis, in its Introduction, firstly reviews the researches made by scholars home and abroad on intercultural communication, particularly intercultural business communication, so as to present a clear description of the most recent cultural study of business with cultural synergy as its research trend.
Chapter I contrasts cultural differences between China and the United States of America. It firstly introduces four dimensions of culture as a criterion of national cultures and then verifies the validity of the four-dimensional model for Chinese culture. Next, it compares China’s four cultural dimensions of Large Power Distance, Collectivism, Strong Uncertainty Avoidance and Femininity with American four cultural dimensions of Small Power Distance, Individualism, Weak Uncertainty Avoidance and Masculinity, with clusters of values grouping together with them respectively.
Chapter II presents cultural synergy between China and U.S.A. It firstly points out the need of cultural synergy in the intercultural application of American management theories. Then, it presents the common core values of thrift and perseverance between U.S.A. and China as the basis of cultural synergy between the two nations. Lastly, the chapter illustrates cultural synergy as an effective approach of applying American management theories to Chinese organizations.
Chapter III is the focus of this thesis. It firstly supplies a relatively comprehensive cultural analysis of contemporary American motivation theories including Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Two-factor Theory, the Acquired Needs Theory and Expectancy Theory with typical American cultural values respectively reflected in these theories illustrated in detail. Then, the chapter compares the differences between the American cultural values reflected in these theories and the relevant Chinese cultural values and further expounds the effective application of these motivation theories to Chinese organizations through cultural synergy. Next, the chapter provides a cultural analysis of contemporary American leadership theories covering Behavioral Approach, Management By Objective, Situational Leadership Theory and Leader Participation Model with American cultural values respectively reflected in them carefully illustrated. And then it compares the differences between the American cultural values reflected in these theories and the relevant Chinese cultural values and further depicts the effective application of these leadership theories to Chinese organizations through cultural synergy. Lastly, this chapter sets forth a cultural analysis of American organization theories including principles of organization design, Total Quality Control and mechanic and organic organization structures with American cultural values respectively reflected in them revealed in detail. It then compares the differences between the American cultural values reflected in these theories and the relevant Chinese cultural values and further expounds the successful application of these organization principles and theory to Chinese organizations and point out the applicable organization structures in China.
The thesis ends with Conclusion, which expounds that through the approach of cultural synergy, Chinese organizations will eventually adopt the essentials of the American motivation, leadership and organizations theories and bring them into full play. It is believed that the discussion in this thesis will be helpful for Chinese organizations’ successful application of American management theories and beneficial to the development of modern Chinese management theories and management thought.
Keywords: Intercultural Business Communication; Cultural Differences between China and U.S.A.; Application of American Management Theories; Cultural Synergy
Table of Contents
Abstract …………………………………………………………………i
Introduction………………………………………………………….………………1
Culture as Mental Programming……………………………………………...................1
Communication and Culture………………………………………………………..….. 2
Intercultural Communication………………………………………………….………...4
Intercultural Business Communication………………………………………………… 5
Chapter I Cultural Differences between U.S.A. and China…………………9
1.1Four Dimensions of Culture……………………………………………………….9
1.2 Different Four Dimensions between U.S.A and China…………………….…. 10
1.2.1 Four Cultural Dimensions of U.S.A………………………………………...10
1.2.2. Four Cultural Dimensions of China…………………………………..11
1.2.3 Contrasting Cultural Values between U.S.A. and China………………….. …12
Chapter II Cultural Synergy: an Approach of Applying American Management Theories to Chinese Organizations…….… 15
2.1The Need of Cultural Synergy in Intercultural Management Practices……..………15
2.2 The Need of Cultural Synergy in Intercultural Application of American Management Theories… ….…16
2.3 Cultural Synergy Defined ……………………………………….…...………..……17
2.4 Foundation of Cultural Synergy between America and China…………….……….19
2.4.1 Common Value of Thrift …………………………………………………..…. 19
2.4.2 Common Value of Perseverance……………………………………...…...…...21
2.5. Consequence of Cultural Synergy between America and China…………...............21
Chapter III Applying American Management Theories to Chinese Organizations through Cultural Synergy…………………..……..24
3.1 Application of American Motivation Theories ……………………………..……..24
3.1.1Introduction of American Motivation Theories…………………………….…24
3.1.2 Hierarchy of Needs Theory……………………………………………..….…25
3.1.2 .1 Cultural Analysis of Hierarchy of Needs Theory………….…..………...25
3.1.2.2 Application of Hierarchy of Needs Theory…………….…………….….27
3.1.3 Two-factor Theory and the Acquired Needs Theory …………….…..……….29
3.1.3.1 Cultural Analysis of Two-factor Theory and the Acquired Needs Theory……...29
3.1.3.2 Application of Two-factor Theory and the Acquired-needs Theory ……..31
3.1.4 Expectancy theory……………………………………………………...…..….32
3.1.4.1 Cultural Analysis of Expectancy Theory………………………………….32
3.1.4.2. Application of Expectancy Theory …………………..………..………….34
3.2 Applying American Leadership Theories to Chinese Organizations Through Cultural Synergy……..35
3.2.1 Cultural Analysis of American Leadership Styles of Behavioral Approach ….35
3.2. 2Management By Objectives……………………………………......................37
3.2.2.1 Cultural Analysis of Management By Objectives………………………..37
3.2.2.2 Application of Management By Objectives…………………….………..39
3.2.3 Situational Leadership Theory …………………………………..…….……..42
3.2.3.1 Cultural Analysis of Situational Leadership Theory…………..…………42
3.2.3.2 Application of Situational Leadership Theory………………..…...……..44
3.2.4 Leader Participation Model …………………………………………....…….46
3.2.4.1 Cultural Analysis of Leader Participation Model………………....……..46
3.2.4.2 Application of the Leader Participation Model………..………..………..48
3.3 Applying American Organization Theories to Chinese Organizations through Cultural Synergy…......49
3.3.1Cultural Analysis of American Organization Principles…………………..…..49
3.3.2Cultural Analysis of American Principles of Organization Design ……….….50
3.3.2.1 Unity of Command ……………………………………………………....50
3.3.2.2 Authority ………………………………………………………… ….….51
3.3.2.3 Span of Control ……………………………………………….…….. ….53
3.3.3 TQM as a Tool of Organization Design …………………………………...…53
3.3.3.1 Cultural Analysis of TQM as a Tool of Organization Design………..….53
3.3.3.2 Application of TQM………………………………………….…………..54
3.3.4Cultural Analysis of Contemporary American Organization Structures ……...55
3.3.4.1 Mechanistic Organization …………………………………………..……55
3.4.4.2 Organic organizations…………………………………………...…..……57
Conclusion………………………………………………………………..…..….….60
Bibliography………………………………………………………………….…..….62
Introduction
Culture as Mental Programming
In most Weston languages ‘culture’ commonly means ‘civilization’ or ‘refinement of the mind’ and in particular the results of such refinement, like education, art, and literature. This is ‘culture in the narrow sense’. However, culture, as ‘mental software’, corresponds to a much broader use of the word, which is common among social anthropologists and will be used in this thesis. In social anthropology, ‘culture’ is a catchword for all those patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. Not only those activities supposed to refine the mind are included in ‘the broader culture’, but also the ordinary and menial things in life: greeting, eating, showing or not showing feelings, keeping a certain physical distance from others, or maintaining body hygiene.(Hofstede, 1997:5)
Culture (the broader) is always a collective phenomenon, because it is always shared with people who live or lived within the same social environment, where it is learned. It is the collective mental programming of the people in an environment. Culture is not a characteristic of individuals; it encompasses a number of people who were conditioned by the same education and life experience. When we speak of the culture of a group, a tribe, a geographical region, a national minority, or a nation, culture refers to the collective mental programming that these people have in common; the programming that is different from that of other groups, tribes, regions, minorities or majorities, or nations.
Culture, in this sense of collective mental programming, is often difficult to change; if it changes, it does so slowly. This is so not only because it exists in the minds of the people but, because it has become crystallized in the institutions these people have built together. Their family structures, educational structures, religious organizations, associations, forms of government, work organizations, law, literature, settlement patterns, buildings and even, as this thesis hopes to show, various theories including management. All of these reflect common beliefs that derive from the common culture.
Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one’s social environment, not from one’s genes. Culture should be distinguished from human nature on one side, and from an individual’s personality on the other (Hofstede, 1997). Human nature is what all human beings have in common: it represents the universal level in one’s mental software. It is inherited with one’s genes; within the computer analogy it is the ‘operating system’ which determines one’s physical basic psychological functioning. The human ability to feel fear, anger, love, joy, sadness, the need to associate with others, the facility to observe the environment and to talk about it with other humans all belong to this level of mental programming. However, what one does with these feelings, how one expresses fear, joy, observations, and so on, is modified by culture. The personality of an individual, on the other hand, is his/her unique personal set of mental programs which (s)he does not share with any other human being, it is based upon traits which are partly inherited with the individual’s unique set of genes and partly learned. ‘Learned’ here means: modified by the influence of collective programming (culture) as well as unique personal experiences.
Although people are all conditioned by cultural influences at many different levels——family, social, group, geographical region, professional environment——this thesis deals specially with the influence of people’s national environment : that is, their country. Most countries’ inhabitants share a national character that’s more clearly apparent to foreigners than to the nationals themselves; it represents the cultural mental programming that the nationals tend to have in common.
Communication and Culture
Communication systems such as language and nonverbal communicating are products of culture (Lillian H. Chaney and Jeanette S. Martin, 2000:3) They are also tools intricately bound up in the processes of culture itself: Language is related to thought processes and to mental learning processes. Linguists have connected how we know something and how we think about something with language. So interconnected are communication and culture that some scholars have been led to use them interchangeably: “Culture is communication” and “Communication is culture.” Yet, language is the tool we most often use to describe culture, which suggests they are indeed separate phenomena. Language is clearly inadequate to help us understand culture, especially our own. Language puts limit on expressing certain qualities or concepts with a single word. Language can also limit the order in which we present thoughts. When language is turned back upon itself and communication in the object of its inquiry as well as the means, then as least understanding communication can help us to understand culture.
Communication is the perception of verbal (worded) and nonverbal (without) behaviors and the assignment of meaning to them. Communication takes place whether the sending of signals is intentional or unintentional. It even takes place when the verbal or nonverbal behavior is unconscious, as long as it is observed and meaning is assigned to it. When a receiver of signals perceives those signals, decides to pay attention to them as meaningful, categorizes them according to categories in his or her mind, and finally assigns meaning to them, communication has occurred. Communication is a process that can falter at any one of these steps when it takes place between members who share values, attitudes, experiences, behavioral expectations, and even a history together. When communicators come from different cultures, however, not only the meanings, but also the mental categories are very different.
People all develop categories in order to make sense of life. Their experience in reading a book belongs in certain activity categories. The way they dress, eat, and get to work every day is behavior that belongs to certain categories. All the value priorities that underlie their behavior also belong to certain categories. These categories are learned from the culture around them. They learned to understand the world according to these categories.
Intercultural Communication
The term intercultural communication was first used by Edward Hall in 1951. He defined intercultural communication as communication between persons of different cultures. The publication of his The Silent Language in 1959 meant the theoretical framework of this discipline was established. According to him, everything about communication and culture applies to intercultural communication, but what especially characterizes intercultural communication is that sources and responders come from different cultures. This alone is sufficient to identify a unique form of communicative interaction that must take into account the role and function of culture in the communication process. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message that must be understood is produced by a member of one culture for consumption by a member of another culture. This circumstance can be problematic because culture forges and shapes the individual communicates. Culture is largely responsible for the construction of our individual social realities and for our individual repertories for communicative behaviors and meanings. The communication repertories people possess can vary significantly from culture to culture, which can lead to all sorts of difficulties. These difficulties can be reduced or eliminated through the study and understanding of intercultural communication.
Since him, an increasing number of scholars began to do research on it. In 1970s, many theories of intercultural communication were put into use in such wide areas as personal life, diplomacy, and training of peace agreement volunteers and expatriates of multinationals, where these innovative theories were verified to be effective. In U.S. over 130 universities began to teach intercultural communication, some of which are even conferred master and doctorate of this discipline to the qualified students. Intercultural communication evolved into a comprehensive discipline during the 1980s, when Gudykunst among other scholars developed it into a series of theories involving sociology, psychology, anthropology, esthetics, and management.
Scholars in China started to study intercultural communication in early 1980s. But they mainly centered on the research on the relation of culture and language. In 1982 Xu Guo Zhang, a well-known English linguist, discussed the relations between the cultural meanings of words and translation. He pointed out that many translated words are not correct culturally. Hu Wen Zhong (1988 ), in his Intercultural Communication and English Study, introduced intercultural communication into English study and English teaching , making English teaching and research the most advanced trend in intercultural communication, which until now is still an important subject of the intercultural communication research in China. However, Hu Wen Zhong, in his Generality of Intercultural Communication, further presented that with the economic globalization a growing number of Chinese scholars would expand their research of intercultural communication into nonverbal communication, values contrasting and the comparison of Chinese and western management pattern.
Intercultural Business Communication
Economic globalization is active across national and ethic boundaries in ways people did not begin to anticipate a mere decade ago. With the dramatic changes in technology, such as the growth of the Internet and the adoption around the planet of satellite and cellular telephony, intercultural communication in business has become increasingly commonplace. Businesses need intercultural communication skills much more than they did in the past centuries. A lot of scholars began to put intercultural communication study on business and gave birth to a new discipline___intercultural business communication in early 1990s.
Intercultural business communication is defined by U.S. Doctor Lillian H. Chaney and Jeanette S. Martin (1995:11) in their Intercultural Business Communication as communication within and between businesses that involves people from more than one culture. Its purpose is to address procedural, substantive, and informational global problems in the business world. Rohrlich (1998) presents that intercultural business communication allows us to work on the procedural issues of country-to-country contacts, diplomacy, and legal contexts; it allows us to become involved with the substantive, cultural level and helps sensitize us to differences. It also allows us to gather information to make decisions when we are in an intercultural business environment.
Borden (1991) lists five constructs that individuals must possess if they are going to succeed interculturally in the business world. The degree to which they can understand intercultural business communication depends upon the degree to which:
1. People are aware that their intent to communicate, either as communicator or communicatee, may result in only expressive behavior or information gathering, respectively.
2. People’s cybernetic (self-concept) in one culture can operate independently of their cybernetic in another culture.
3. People are competent in the language of other cultures.
4. People are able to work within the constraints (personal, situational, and cultural) of the human communication system established by the communication from other cultures.
5. People are culturally literate in their own and other cultures.
Businesses nowadays, as Lindar Beamer (2001:6) presents in her newly-edited Intercultural Communication in Global Workplace, must deal with cultural diversity. The nature of intercultural business communication is to offer an accessible source for people looking for a conceptual basis with practical applications to help intercultural communication awareness, knowledge, and skills on such areas as a firm’s cultural environment and management of structure, relations and rules and decisions-making, intercultural negotiation and legal and governmental considerations. This nature and scope of intercultural business communication study is also supported by Lillian H. Chaney (2000), Gary Ferro(1998) in his The Cultural Dimension of International Business and Chinese scholar , Zhuang En Ping(2004) in his Intercultural Business Communication: Texts and Cases.
Intercultural business communication also means individuals within organizations must also come to terms with diversity. The way to deal with diversity is not to deny it or ignore it, but to learn about differences so they don’t impair communication and successful business transactions (Lindar Beamer, 2001).
Cultural differences don’t prevent people from working with each other or communicating with each other or having productive business transactions. Indeed, people must learn to work with each other. The future of any organization depends on it. The reality is that businesses will increasingly be spicy stew of cultures, and so increasingly will the whole globe they inhabit in. This fact is one reason why people must all acknowledge diversity and accept it.
The biggest gain from accepting cultural differences is that cultural diversity enriches each person. People around the world and throughout history have developed a stunning variety of social systems and hierarchies of values. As a member of the human race, people can claim their rightful part-ownership of this richness, and they can celebrate the fertility of the human imagination along with its diverse products.
Skill in intercultural business communication is the essential ingredient for a successful cultural stew. Companies like Hewlett-Packard in the United States have discovered the value of intercultural communication skills and the increased productivity they bring, and they have instituted diversity programs to train employees. They understand that the first step in effective intercultural communication is acceptance of diversity. This means people examine their own values and the values of others, look at the implications of theses values for business, determine where the differences lie, and see how they can best overcome the differences and work together.
The first step in effective intercultural communication is the understanding and acceptance of differences. That does not mean we have to agree with another culture’s viewpoint, or that we have to adopt another culture’s values. It does mean we and they examine our and their priorities and determine how we all can best work together, being different.
In the process, we will realize that a person entering another culture will always have to adapt to a number of cultural conditions. That doesn’t mean turning one’s back on one’s own culture or denying its priorities. Rather it means learning what motivates others and how other cultural priorities inform the behavior, attitudes, and values of business colleagues. This approach means adding to one’s own culture, not subtracting from it.
In attempting to understand another culture’s perception, as presented by Lindar Beamer and Iris Varner (2001), we will be further ahead if we take off our own cultural blinders and develop sensitivity in the way we speak and behave. In Managing Cultural Differences, Philip R. Harris and Robert T. Moran (1996:212) present that cultural synergy is a good approach to emphasize similarities and common concerns and integrate differences to enrich human activities and systems.
Zhuang En Ping, after years’ comparing study of joint-ventures and multinationals in the U.S.A. and China, found out that most multinationals’ failures in operation and management resulted from the negligence of cultural differences of the employees. He presents in his Cultural Synergy and Intercultural Business Communication Study in Multinationals (2003:2) that although the management of multinationals and joint ventures involve such aspects as business operation, management ideas, the exploitation of human resources, decision-making and business communication, all of these are operated by people from diversified cultures with diversified values and norms. The employees’ different understanding of management and communication leads to cultural conflicts, which, consequently, results in the failure of operating the company. Zhuang En Ping then presents that intercultural business communication, as a new kind of discipline, can succeed in resolving fundamental cultural problems in international business operation and multinational’s management through being applied in such areas as management, international negotiation, global leadership, human resources, marketing, public relationships and so on. He further presents that cultural analysis is the best approach to discover the source of the problems in international business operation and management and cultural synergy is the foundation for Intercultural Business Communication, which is the best way to help smooth international business operation and management.
Chapter I
Cultural Differences between U.S.A. and China
1. 1Four Dimensions of Culture
After over ten years study, Geert Hofstede (1980:198) empirically found four basic cultural problems in IBM data. Based on the profound study of these data, Hofstede presented these problems as dimensions of cultures. He named the dimensions as power distance( from small to large) , collectivism versus individualism , femininity versus masculinity , and uncertainty avoidance ( from weak to strong). All together they form a four-dimensional model of differences among national cultures. This model, as a perfect tool to identify differences in national value systems, gives each country a score on each of the four dimensions. Each dimension grouping together a number of values in a society, which are empirically found to occur in combination, represents a value system. The description of four dimensions of culture is as follows:
1. Power distance___ the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. ‘Institutions’ are the basic elements of society like the family, school, and the community; ‘organizations’ are the places where people work. This dimension is reflected in the values of the less powerful members of society as well as in those of the more powerful ones.
2. Individualism___ a loosely knit social framework in a society in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and of their immediate families only. Collectivism, the opposite, occurs when there is a “ tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups: people expect their in-group (relatives, clan, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that they owe absolute loyalty to their in-group.”
3. Masculinity with it opposite pole, femininity__ This dimension expresses “ the extent to which the dominant values in society are assertiveness, money and material things, not caring for others, quality of life and people.” These values were labeled “masculine” because, within nearly all societies, men scored higher in terms of the values’ positive sense than of their negative sense ( in terms of assertiveness, for example, rather than its lack )__ even though the society as a whole might veer toward the “feminine” pole.
4. Uncertainty avoidance____ the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid these situations by providing greater career stability, establishing more formal rules, not tolerating deviant ideas and behaviors, and believing in absolute truths and the attainment of expertise.
After its birth, the model of four dimensions has been causing great attention in the field of intercultural business communication. Lots of scholars, after profound studies of the model, verified its validity and began to distinguish the differences of national cultures in accordance with the model. Nowadays, this model has evolved into a most influential approach for the study of cultural differences of nations.
1.2 Different Four Dimensions between U.S.A and China
1.2.1 Four Cultural Dimensions of U.S.A
According to Hofstede’s study (1980:200), the relative position of the United States on four dimensions is as follows:
. On Power Distance at rank out 38 of the 53 countries (measured from below ), it is below average but it is not as low as a number of other wealthy countries .
. On Uncertainty Avoidance at rank 43 out of 53, it is well below average.
. On Individualism at rank 1 out of 53, the United States is the single most individualist country of the entire set (followed closely by Australia and Great Britain).
. On Masculinity at rank 15 out of 53, it is well above average.
Thus, the United States is a country of small power distance, weak uncertainty avoidance, strong individualism, and strong masculinity.
1.2.2. Four Cultural Dimensions of China
However, Hofstede’s four-dimensional model doesn’t cover China for historical reasons. This caused a great trouble for using it to distinguish Chinese culture. To deal with the problem, many well-known scholars of intercultural business communication, after astronomical surveys and theoretical studies, finally verified the validity of the model on Chinese culture. The Canadian scholar, Bond from Hongkong Chinese University conducted a survey named “The Chinese Culture Connection” in 22 countries in the world (Peng Shi Yong, 2004). His study is based on 40 traditional Chinese cultural values in relation to Hofstede’s four dimensional-models. The tremendous amount of data and theoretical comparison show Chinese culture can also be classified into four value systems presented in the four-dimensional model, thus verifying the validity Hofstede’s model on Chinese national culture. Another two scholars, Smith and Trompenaars (Peng Shi Yong, 2004) made a survey of verifying the validity of four dimensional-models on Chinese culture in 43 countries. They adopted different analyzing approaches, but obtained similar results to Bond’s. Their study also shows Chinese cultural values can be grouped into four value systems as power distance, individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance.
Based on Hofstede’s four-dimensional models, Chinese scholars, Guan Yi Xin and Guo Ting Jian (1990) presented the four dimensions of Chinese culture in their Conspectus of Organizational Culture. In this book, they presented Chinese culture as one of Large Power Distance, Weak Uncertainty Avoidance, Strong Collectivism and Small Masculinity. Their study of the characteristics of Chinese national culture was supported by a survey made by a western group of scholars like Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina and Howell (Peng Shi Yong, 2004). In 1997, these four scholars made a survey in 9 countries including China. The result of their data analyses largely corresponds with the research of Guan Yi Xin and Guo Ting Jian.
1.2.3 Contrasting Cultural Values between U.S.A. and China
Consequently, the respective four dimensions of China and U.S.A is like the ones shown in Table 1.1
Table1.1. Different four dimensions of the U.S. and China
Dimensions of Culture | The United States | China |
Power Distance | Small | Large |
Individualism/ Collectivism | Strong | Weak |
Masculinity | Strong | Weak |
Uncertainty Avoidance | Weak | Strong |
Source: based on Guan Yi Xin and Guo Ting Jian , Conspectus of Organizational Culture [M].Beijing:People’s Publishing House,1990.
As each dimension groups a cluster of values constituting the national value system of each country, we here list the key cultural values related with the different cultural dimensions of U.S.A and China for contrast. These value systems are shown from Table 1.2.to 1.5.
Table1.2. Key value differences between power distance dimension of U.S. and China
Dimensions of Culture | The United States | China |
Power Distance | Small | Large |
| Inequalities among people should be minimized. Hierarchy in organizations means just an inequality of roles, established for convince.
Decentralization of leadership is popular. Subordinates expect to be consulted. The ideal boss is a resourceful democrat. Privileges and status symbols are frowned upon. | Inequalities among people are both expected and desired. Hierarchy in organizations reflects the existential inequality between higher-ups and lower-downs. The popular leadership is centralization. Subordinates expect to be told what to do. The ideal boss is benevolent autocrat or old father. Privileges and status symbols for managers are both expected and popular. |
Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: software of the mind, McGraw-Hill, 1997, p37.
Table 1.3 Key value differences between individualism dimension of U.S. and China
Dimensions of Culture | The United States | China |
Individualism/ Collectivism | Strong | Weak |
| Everyone grows up to look after him/herself and his /her immediate (nuclear) family only. Speaking one’s mind is a characteristic of an honest person. Relationship employer-employee is a contract supposed to be based on mutual advantage. Hiring and promotion decisions are supposed to be based on skills and rules only Management is management of individuals. Task prevails over relationship | People are born into extended families or other ingroups which continue to protect them for exchange for loyalty Harmony should always be maintained and direct confrontations avoided. Relationship between employer-employee is perceived in moral terms, like a family link. Hiring and promotion decisions take employee’s ingroup account Management is management of Group Relationship prevails over task |
Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: software of the mind, McGraw-Hill, 1997, p67.
Figure 1.4 Key value differences between masculinity dimension of U.S. and China
Dimensions of Culture | The United States | China |
Masculinity | Strong | Weak |
| Dominant values in society are material success and progress Money and things are important. Men are supposed to be assertive, ambitious, and tough. Sympathy for the strong. Managers expected to be decisive and assertive. Stress on equity, competition among colleagues, and performance. Resolution of conflicts by fighting them out | Dominant values in society are caring for others and preservation .People and warm relations are important. Men are supposed to be modest Sympathy for the weak. Managers strive for consensus. Stress on equality, solidarity, and quality of work life. Resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation |
Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: software of the mind, McGraw-Hill, 1997, p97.
Table1.5 Key value differences between uncertainty avoidance dimension of the U.S. and China
Dimensions of Culture | The United States | China |
Uncertainty Avoidance | Weak | Strong |
| Uncertainty is a normal feature of life and each day is accepted as it comes. Comfortable in ambiguous situations and with unfamiliar risks What is different is curious There should be not be more rules than is strictly necessary. Tolerance of deviant and innovative ideas and behavior
Low stress; subjective feeling of well-being; hard-working when needed. Motivation by achievement and esteem or belongingness | The uncertainty inherent in life is felt as a continuous threat which must be fought Acceptance of familiar risks; fear of ambiguous situations. What is different, is dangerous Emotional need for rules, even if these will never work. Suppression of deviant ideas and behavior; resistance to innovation High stress; subjective feeling of anxiety; inner urge to work hard. Motivation by security and esteem or belongingness. |
Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: software of the mind, [M]. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997, p125.
Chapter II
Cultural Synergy: an Approach of Applying American Management Theories to Chinese Organizations
2.1The Need of Cultural Synergy in Intercultural Management Practices
Scholars in the field of intercultural business communication, like Moran and Stripp (1996), made a profound study of management styles of many international corporations in the early 1990s. They found that those successful companies had adopted various management styles so as to break cultural barriers and find ways to work harmoniously with people of all cultures so as to increase productivity and maintain worker morale. The scholars clarify the international corporations’ management styles into three kinds as ethnocentric management practices, polycentric management practices and integrated geocentric management practices. The scholars point out that the key to competing successfully in a global economy is to adopt the different management styles to different cultures.
When a firm is located in one country and all its sales are in the same country, ethnocentric management practices will be employed. Ethnocentric management does not account for cultural differences in the workplace. All workers will be treated the same. Many times the management practices employed will rely on one person’s views of how the organization should be run. This kind of management style is also called the cultural dominance model. This “ugly foreigner” approach is used when a company chooses to have one culture’s style of management superimposed on the employees and clients of another culture. This model of management does not recognize or acknowledge the specific business or management styles of the nondominant culture.
Polycentric management practices consider the culture of the country in which the firm is located. The person in charge considers the cultural needs of the workers in the area in which the firm is located. A melting-pot effect may seem to exist because the majority’s culture is considered in management decisions
Integrated geocentric management, according to the relevant statistics, is the style that most successful multinational corporations often use. Geocentric management requires a common framework with enough freedom for individual locations to operate regionally in order to meet the cultural needs of the workers. Geocentric refers to synergy of ideas from different countries of operation. Corporations have common control practices, which the individual locations are free to modify.
2.2 The Need of Cultural Synergy in the Intercultural Application of American Management Theories
Scholars of intercultural business communication believe that theories of all parts of management, especially motivation, leadership and organization, are out of management practices conditioned by the specific culture. These scholars present that people see the world in the way they have learned to see it. Only to a limited extent can they step out the boundaries imposed by their cultural conditioning. This applies to the author of a management theory as much as it does to the ordinary citizen. That is: Theories reflect the cultural environment in which they were written.
Consequently, Italian, British, German, and French theories reflect the culture of Italy, Britain, Germany, and France of their day and American theories reflect the culture of the United States of its day. The scholars of intercultural business communication further present that although most American management theorists assume that their theories are universally valid, cultural differences around the world make these theorists’ assumptions hardly succeed. Therefore, as they point out, the successful approach is to find out the cultural similarities between America and the applied country and then apply these theories through cultural synergy based on these similarities.
2.3 Cultural Synergy Defined
Synergy, according to Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought, is :
The additional benefit accruing to a number of systems should they coalesce to form a larger system. This concept reflects the classical opinion that the “whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”…More generally still, the term is applied to the generation of unpleasant social benefits among people who unconsciously cooperate in pursuit of their own interests and goals.
Therefore, synergy, as Harris and Moran points out in their Managing Cultural Differences (1996:231), is cooperative or combined action. It can occur when diversified or disparate groups of people work together. The objective of synergy is to increase effectiveness by sharing perceptions, insights, and knowledge. The complexity and shrinking of today’s world literally forces people to capitalize on their differences. Cultural synergy is therefore synthesized as follows:
1. It represents a dynamic process.
2. It involves adapting and learning.
3. Synergy involves joint action of discrete agencies in which the total effect is greater than the sum of their effects when acting independently.
4. It has the goal of creating an integrated solution.
Zhuang En Ping, after years’ study of cultural synergy in joint-ventures of Sino-U.S and Sino-Japan, finds out the core of cultural synergy is the synergy of values (2003). Values, according to Thiederman (1991), form the core of a culture. Values fundamentally influence our behavior in society. They do not describe how we act in a culture but dictate what we ought or ought not to do. Values tend to be the basis of all the decisions we make and provide standards for us to evaluate our own and others’ actions. The decisive role of values can be illustrated in Table 2.1 .
Table 2.1 Cultural Iceberg
Source: Lillian H. Chaney and Jeanette S. Martin.—2nd ed.( Upper Saddle River, New Jersey : The Dryden Press, 2000), p12
Zhuang En Ping, realizing the fundamental function of cultural values, further presents the cultural synergy of two cultures, namely Culture A and Culture B, should be carried out on the basis of the common core values of these two cultures, upon which cultural differences can be combined. This cultural synergy, with cultural essentials from both nations mixed together, will produce an effect of “ one plus one is larger than two”___a greater effect than the sum of their effects acting independently. This kind of culture based synergy is different from the original cultures, nor Culture A or Culture B. It is a new culture, which can be called Culture C. (As shown in Table 2.2.) On this new culture out of synergy, all aspects of intercultural business communications can be integrated.
Table 2.2 Culture C
contact
“Differences”
perceived
values
conflict and negotiation
synergy
Source: Based on Zhuang En Ping, “Cultural Synergy in Multinational Corporation Management and Intercultural Business Communication Study”, Journal of Shanghai University (Social Science edition)(March 2003), 91.
2.4 Foundation of Cultural Synergy between America and China
2.4.1 Common Value of Thrift
The base of cultural synergy, as we have discussed above, is the common key values of the two nations. Consequently, the possibility of cultural synergy of the U.S. and China depends on whether the two countries have common values.
Fortunately, both of two peoples do have common virtues, among which thrift and perseverance are the most admittedly essential for them. These two values, as Hofstede presented (1997), are the very spiritual motivation for a nation’s economic growth and social development.
Many people argue that Americans like spending and consuming very much, and refuse to accept that Americans are thrifty people. However, they neglect that the American government and the people are just using this method to stimulate the internal demand of the market so as to keep their economy soaring. Spending and consuming is just an economical approach. In their hearts, they still adhere to the virtue of thrift advocated by Puritanism, which stirred their forefathers to come to the New World and founded the new nation.
When the English came to the North American continent in the earlier seventeenth century, they carried with them to America a code of values, a philosophy of life, a point of view which, in time, took root in the New World and became what is popularly known as American Puritanism (Chang Yao Xing, 1990:18). American Puritanism was a dominant factor in American life and one of the most enduring shaping influences in American thought. It has become, to some extent, so much a state of mind, rather than a set of tenets, so much a part of the national cultural atmosphere that the American breathes. Puritans, with their doctrine of advocating thrift, austerity of taste and killjoy of life, did their best to help to build a new nation and a new culture out of the wilderness. Although, their decedents rejected the doctrine of the religious bigotry and rigidity of life, the value of thrift has burned their way into the very fabric of American life through the centuries until now.
Chang Yao Xin (Chang Yao Xing, 1990: 18) , after comparing the influence of Puritanism on Americans to the influence of Confucianism on Chinese, found the Confucian value of “ developing the family by thrift ” have a similar effect on Chinese development. This value helped Chinese go through the vicissitudes of history of several thousand years and built a strong nation out of ruins of wars. This value is highly esteemed by Chinese, especially at the present time. In Sha Lian Xiang’s survey (2002), the value of thrift takes up 24.4% of all the eight values of Chinese national values. Bond (1997) also agrees that thrift is the pillar of Chinese culture and the major cause for the economic boom during the past years.
2.4.2 Common Value of Perseverance
Another important value esteemed by both of the two nations is perseverance. American perseverance resulted from Puritans’ desire to build a new Garden of Eden in America. Out of this dream, they worked with indomitable courage. They met tremendous difficulties and obstacles, but they never gave up. They held the confident hope of changing the wild nature into beautiful homes with the direction of God. They became greatly self-reliant and perseverant. This value finally helps them build their country into the strongest in the modern world.
Chinese, too, are perseverant people. Actually, the saying of “making all efforts to improve yourself” first appeared in Book of Changes about two thousand years ago. The saying like “the most important virtue for a man is perseverance”, and “ the dreams can be fulfilled only if you never give up” have been popular for thousands years in China and stimulated thousands of people to sweep away obstacles and achieve accomplishments. Min Qing & Tu Ke Guo(1995:202), in their book of New Chinese Cultural System, present that the value of perseverance is especially reflected in Chinese people’s continual struggling with flood during the past 1,300 years. From Tang to Qing Dynasty, the Yangzi River flooded for over 200 times and the Yellow River flooded over 100 times. During this process, perseverant Chinese people never gave up their dream of controlling it. They eventually built the Grand Canal and Du Jiang Yan Bank and tamed the nature with their wisdom and persistence. Its high percentage in Sha Lian Xian’s value study clearly demonstrates its significance for modern Chinese. In his study of Confucius dynamism, Bond (1997) discovered that perseverance (persistence) is anther core value that has enhanced the fast development of China in the past twenty years.
2.5. Consequence of Cultural Synergy between America and China
Chinese culture has long been a culture of high-synergy, because it has benefited a lot from learning from others through cultural synergy. Actually, the spirit of “never too old to learn” was one of the greatest doctrines advocated by Confucius over two thousand years ago and has been followed by generations of Chinese up to now. To absorb cultural essentials from other nations, Chinese people are inclined more toward cooperation than competition, working toward mutual benefits derived from their common undertakings. Society seeks to use common resources and talents for the commonwealth and encourages development of human potential of all citizenry. Jia Yu Xin (2002:86) discovered that among all those describing Chinese national characters, “emphasizing integration and peace loving” takes up 5.2% while “learning spirit” takes up 6.8%.
The common core values of thrift and perseverance provide the foundation for cultural synergy between U.S.A. and China. This cultural synergy (the process of producing Culture C) is greatly helpful for China, for China can consequently adopt cultural essentials and norms in various areas in business like management of motivation, leadership and organization from U.S.A, as shown in Table2.3.
Table2.3. Culture C as the basis of cultural synergy in intercultural application of American
management theories
Culture C
S
Source: Based on Zhuang Eng Ping, “Cultural Synergy in Multinational Corporation Management and Intercultural Business Communication Study”, Journal of Shanghai University (Social Science edition) (March 2003), p91.
Successful application of American management theories to Chinese organizations through cultural synergy is a long-term complicated process. During this process, as Adler(1996) presented in her cultural synergy model of management, the cultural similarities and differences between these two countries should be recognized and combined , upon which new international management policies and practices are created.
Chapter III
Applying American Management Theories
to Chinese Organizations through Cultural
Synergy
3.1 Application of American Motivation Theories
3.1.1Introduction of American Motivation Theories
Motivation, in management, refers to the forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. Employee motivation affects productivity, and part of a manager’s job is to channel motivation toward the accomplishment of organizational goals. (Richard M. Steers and Lyman W. Porte, 1985) The study of employee motivation in the U.S. has experienced five stages, namely, traditional approach, human relations approach, human resource approach and contemporary approaches. The study of motivation really began with the work of Frederik W. Taylor in the early twentieth century on scientific management, which perceived workers as economic men__people who would work harder for higher pay (Daft, R.L., 1998:352). Later, the concept of economic man was replaced by social man, with the landmark Hawthorne studies at a Western Electric plant. He stated that noneconomic rewards, such as congenial work groups who met social needs seemed more important than money as a motivator of work behavior. The concepts of economic man and social man are farther carried to introduce the concept of the whole person by the human resource approach represented by the work by McGregor on Theory X and Theory Y. Human resource theory suggests that employees are complex and motivated by many factors. This approach laid the groundwork for contemporary perspectives on employee motivation. They are content theories, process theories and reinforcement theories, among which the content theories and process theories are the most influential. This thesis, consequently, will mainly study these two.
3.1.2 Hierarchy of Needs Theory
3.1.2 .1 Cultural Analysis of Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Hierarchy of needs theory, developed by Abraham Maslow in 1943, was the most famous American content theory in the world (Maslow, 1943: 370-396). His theory, as illustrated in Table 3.1, proposes that humans are motivated by multiple needs, which exist in a hierarchical order. Maslow’s identification of five general types of motivating needs in order of ascendance is as follows:
1. Physiological needs. These are the most basic human physical needs, including food, water, and sex. In the organizational setting, these are reflected in the needs of adequate heat, air and base salary to ensure survival.
2. Safety needs. These are the needs for a safe and secure physical and emotional environment and freedom from threats——that is, for freedom from violence and for an orderly society.
3 Belongingness needs. These needs reflect the desire to be accepted by one’s peers, have friendships, be part of a group, and be loved.
4. Esteem needs. These needs relate to the desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention, recognition, and appreciation form others.
5. Self-actualization needs. These represent the need for self-fulfillment, which is the highest need category. They concern developing one’s full potential, increasing one’s competence, and becoming a better person.
Table 3.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Source: Richare L. Daft , Management--4th ed. —Printed.—Beijing: Machinery Publishing House, 1998. p530.
According to Maslow’s theory, low-order needs take priority—these needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs are activated. The needs are satisfied in sequence: Physiological needs come before safety needs, safety needs before social needs, and so on. He puts self-actualization plus esteem above social needs above social needs above security needs.
However, this is not the description of a universal human motivation process——it is the description of a value system, the one the U.S. middle class to which the author belonged. As shown in Table 1.3, U.S. is a country of Strong Individualism, or we would say, the most individualistic country in the world. Everyone in U.S., after his birth, learns to be self-reliant and look after himself. There is a general understanding that the value of individual is supreme and it is the individual who has the capacity to shape his or her own destiny (Ferraro, 1998:155). Society, including family, school and workplace, is seen as an instrument for satisfying the needs of the individual. Their identity is on themselves, not family, colleagues or leaders. Because of their cultural dimensions of Weak Uncertainty Avoidance and Strong Masculinity (as shown in Table 1.4 and Table 1.5), Americans are not afraid of challenges and risks. On the contrary, they like to take risks and prefer to competing with each other. The inherent Puritanism gives them positive sanctions to work, achievement, and activity.
Therefore, when working in organizations, Americans need a motivation for recognition, an increase in responsibility and high status, which is, of course, reflected in esteem needs. However, what they want the most in organization is self-actualization. That is to be provided with opportunities to grow, be creative, and acquire training for challenging assignments and advancement. These particular American cultural values gave birth to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
3.1.2.2 Application of Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Since Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was introduced into China many years ago, management theorists and managers have continued to apply it into Chinese companies. Many of them failed due to the ignorance of the cultural differences between China and U.S.A. They didn’t make it clear that although the needs given by Maslow also exist in China, the hierarchy is an American one——Maslow identified the hierarchy reflected by American people and verified it in American management practices. As shown in Table 1.3, China is a country of Strong Collectivism. People are born into extended families, which continue to protect them for exchange for loyalty. People’s identity is based on the social network to which they belong. Harmony should always be maintained and direct confrontations avoided. Relationship between employer-employee is perceived in moral terms, like a family link. As found by Sun Miao Fei (2003), “Chinese people believe self-interest should follow the need of the collective, and when necessary, self-interest should be scarified for the collective interest.” Besides, Chinese people, out of the culture of Strong Uncertainty Avoidance and Weak Masculinity (as shown in Table 1.4 and Table 1.5), accept familiar risks but fear of ambiguous situations, unfamiliar risks and challenges. Their dominant values in society are caring for others and preservation. Warm relations between people are the most important. They don’t advocate competition but “harmony”.
Consequently, brought up in almost the most collective culture in the world through their childhood in family and youth in school, Chinese employees, after stepping into adulthood, naturally continue to desire acceptance, love, support and protection from their coworkers and supervisors. For exchange of it, they endeavor to contribute to their coworkers, supervisors and the organization. This mutual dependence and contribution, as the foundation of harmonious organizations in China, lead to Chinese employees’ fundamental needs for belongingness. Furthermore, the national value system of Strong Certainty Avoidance and Weak Masculinity of China is so strong that even nowadays many youngsters choose to work in a stable organization like universities or state-owned companies for safe jobs and fringe benefits. Thus, safety needs is the second most important needs for Chinese employees while esteem needs the third. Consequently, we can find that the hierarchy of Chinese needs is as shown in Table 3.2
Table3.2 Hierarchy of Needs applicable to Chinese culture
Belongingness needs |
Safety needs |
Esteem needs |
Self-actualization needs |
Physiological needs |
As discussed above, management theories developed in one culture can only be applied successfully to another culture through cultural synergy. When we introduce Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory to Chinese organizations, we should exert changes on the original theory and make it acceptable to Chinese employees through cultural synergy, combining the sophisticated American ideas with Chinese values, as Shenzhen Zhong Hua Bicycle Company did.
Through a series of researches, Lin Yong He (1993:206) found that Zhong Hua Bicycle Company was quite successful in applying Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory to its company through cultural synergy. In early 1990s, Zhong Hua Bicycle Company realized that the development of market economy in Shenzhen had shaped its employees much more individualistic than before. The employees began to realize their potentiality and tried to ask more chances to grow and create. Facing this, the company began to advocate the spirit of “self-actualization” among the employees through providing more chances for promotion and more prize money for the successful ones. Simultaneously, the company did not learn the theory mechanically. It synergized the theory. Deeply understanding the first needs of employees means the “belongings needs”, the company initially advocated the policy of “taking care of the workers and creating the air of home” so as to satisfy their belongings needs. The adaptation of the theory through combination successfully stimulated the employees and enhanced the development of the company.
3.1.3 Two-factor Theory and the Acquired Needs Theory
3.1.3.1 Cultural Analysis of Two-factor Theory and the Acquired Needs Theory
Frederick Hertzberg (1968:53-62) developed another popular theory of motivation called the two-factor theory through his study in the U.S.A., as illustrated in Table 3.3.
Table3.3Herzberg’sTwo-FactorTheory
As we can see, Herzberg believed that two entirely separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s behavior at work. He called the first as hygiene factors, involving the presence or absence of job dissatisfiers, such as working conditions, pay, company policies, and interpersonal relationships. When hygiene factors are poor, as he said, work is dissatisfying. However, he found good hygiene factors simply remove the dissatisfaction of the American employees; they do not in themselves cause people to become highly satisfied and motivated in their work. This, as we can see, corresponds quite closely to Maslow’s lower needs of physiological safety and belongings, similarly reflecting the American national value system of Weak Uncertainty Avoidance. Hertzberg believes what highly motivates and satisfies workers are the second set of factors of the high-level need of motivators, including achievement, recognition, responsibility, and opportunity for growth, which corresponds to Maslow’s higher needs of esteem and self-actualization, reflecting American value systems of Strong Masculinity and Strong Individualism.
Another well-known American content theory was developed by David McClelland——the acquired needs theory (1971: 73-86). This theory proposes that certain types of needs are acquired during the individual’s lifetime. In other words, people are not born with these needs but may learn them through their life experiences.
The three acquired needs are these:
1 Need for achievement: the desire to accomplish something difficult, attain a high standard of success, master complex tasks, and surpass others.
2 Need for affiliation: the desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish warm friendships.
3 Need for power: the desire to influence or control others, be responsible for others, and have authority over others.
Whether people acquired these needs is, presented by McClelland, determined by their early life experiences. In his book The Achieving Society, McClelland set up scores of achievement need in different countries. According to his study, U.S. receives mostly high scores on achievement need. This, as we can see, is due to the cultural dimensions of Weak Uncertainty Avoidance and Strong Masculinity of U.S.A. People there like risks and are prone to performing, preferring material things and taking all efforts to fulfill their dreams. Consequently, achievement need, quite similar to self-actualization needs in Marslow’s hierarchy of needs, is the most important need for Americans in their organizations.
3.1.3.2 Application of Two-factor Theory and the Acquired-needs Theory
According to the principle of theory application, the two-factor theory should be adopted and modified through cultural synergy. Therefore, Chinese values should be taken into consideration. According to Chinese cultural dimensions of Strong Collectivism and Weak Uncertainty Avoidance, what highly motivates and satisfies Chinese employees are the hygienic factors of working conditions and relationships, which closely corresponds to safety needs and belongings needs as discussed above. However, as we have also discussed, China, at present, is changing very swiftly. The fast developing economy is influencing Chinese cultural values profoundly. Therefore, when this theory of two- factor theory is applied, the managers of Chinese organizations should keep this in mind: put hygiene factors in the first place through supplying good working conditions, stable payment for the employees and increasing communication between managers and employees by organizing activities such as basketball matches, traveling and parties. Simultaneously, the managers should try to raise motivators for the employees through providing more training chances for employees and increasing the pace of promotion. The two-factors motivation suitable for Chinese culture can be shown as in Table3.4
Table 3.4 Two-factors Needs applicable to Chinese culture
Highly satisfied | Hygiene factors: working conditions, pay, company policies, and interpersonal relationships. |
Highly dissatisfied | Motivators: achievement, challenge, recognition, responsibility, and opportunity for growth. |
As the acquired-needs theory is quite similar to two-factor theory, it can be applied to Chinese organizations in the similar way. Managers in Chinese organizations should not pay much attention to achievement motive but to the employees’ affiliation need of stability, relationships and harmony. Sincere caring and creating the atmosphere of family in the organization can be the most effective means of employee motivation.
3.1.4 Expectancy theory
3.1.4.1 Cultural Analysis of Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory, presented by Victor Vroom (1957:345-353), is one of the most important American process theories explaining how workers select behavioral actions to meet their needs and determine whether their choices were successful. Vroom suggests that motivation depends on individuals’ expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards. Expectancy theory is concerned not with identifying types of needs but with the thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards.
This thinking process, as we can see, is also a reflection of American cultural values.
As shown in Table 3.5, expectancy theory is based on the relationship among the individual’s effort, his performance, and the desirability of outcomes associated with high performance:
E———〉P This expectancy process involves whether putting effort into a task will lead to high performance. For this expectancy to be high, the individual must have the ability, tools and opportunity to perform.
P——〉O This expectancy process involves whether successful performance will lead to the desired outcome. In the case of someone who is motivated to win a job-related award, this expectancy concerns the belief that high performance will truly lead to the award.
Valence is value of outcomes for the individual.
Table 3.5 Major Elements of Expectancy Theory
Source: Richare L. Daft , Management--4th ed. —Printed.—Beijing: Machinery Publishing House, 1998, p537.
Vroom here presents that if the outcomes are valuable, employees will automatically take every effort to get them. Likewise, if outcomes have a low value, employees will take few efforts to take them. That is, valuable outcomes themselves are enough to pull employees to perform well to acquire them, without the need of managers’ push.
As we have discussed above, Americans are a nation of Masculinity, Weak Uncertainty Avoidance and Small Power Distance. Their dominant values are material success and progress. For most of them, money and things are important. They are not afraid of risks of failure, but prefer competition and achievement. Theses values, together with their never waiting for the leaders’ orders to work hard, make them possible to perform highly to obtain the valuable payment and rewards.
3.1.4.2. Application of Expectancy Theory
In a country of Femininity and Strong Uncertainty Avoidance, Chinese dominant values are caring for others. They believe warm relations are much more important than the material things, disliking ambiguous new situations or competition but preferring “what they have got”. In addition, because of the influence of Large Power Distance, Chinese are accustomed to waiting for the external boss to make decisions for them. Besides, having a powerful superior whom they can both praise and blame is also a good way of satisfying their strong need for avoiding uncertainty. Therefore, even if the outcomes of payment and rewards are valuable, Chinese employees won’t automatically try every means to acquire them. They tend to be pushed.
When applying this theory to their organizations, Chinese managers should not just supply high rank post and high salaries associated with high performance for the employees and then wait for the employees to get these outcomes automatically. The managers should keep in mind that the Chinese employees need external push for high performance. The managers should advocate the appreciation of competition and achievement among employees while emphasizing the employees’ obligation of contribution to the organization and giving pressure on the employees through frequent asking about the progress of their work.
3.2 Applying American Leadership Theories to Chinese Organizations Through Cultural Synergy
3.2.1 Cultural Analysis of American Leadership Styles of Behavioral Approach
The concept of leadership, according to Gary Yukl (1989:321), continues to evolve as the needs of organizations change. Among all the American ideas and writings about leadership, three aspects stand out——people, influence, and goals. Leadership, for them, occurs among people, involves the use of influence, and is used to attain goals. Influence means that the relationship among people is not passive. Moreover, influence is designed to achieve some end or goal. Thus, leadership is defined as the ability to influence people toward the attainment of goals. It is dynamic and involves the use of power.
Early American management theorists believed that leaders in organizations could be classified into two kinds: an autocratic leader and a democratic leader. An autocratic leader is, they believe, one who tends to centralize authority and rely on legitimate, award, and coercive power. A democratic leader delegates authority to others, encourages participation, and relies on expert and referent power to influence subordinates. The autocratic and democratic styles suggest that it is the “behavior” of the leader rather than a personality trait that determines leadership effectiveness. Important research programs on leadership behavior were conducted at Ohio State University, the University of Michigan, and the University of Texas.
In 1940s, researchers at Ohio State University found that leaders with high consideration and high initiating structure achieved better performance and greater satisfaction. (C.A. Schriesheim and B.J. Bird, 1979) Nearly at the same time, R. Likert (1979:401), with other researchers at the University of Michigan, found that effective leaders are those who established high performance goals and displayed supportive behavior toward subordinates nearly at the same time. These leaders are called employee-entered leaders. The less effective leaders are called job-centered leaders.
Built on the work of Michigan and the Ohio State studies, Blake and Mouton of the University of Texas (1985) proposed a tow-dimensional leadership theory called leadership grid.
The two-dimensional model and five of major management styles are depicted in Table 3.6
Table 3.6 The Leadership Grid
Source: The Leadership Grid Figure from Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse, Leadership Dilemmas—Grid Solutions (Houston: Gult, 1991), p29.
As we can find, each axis on the grid is a 9-point scale, with 1 meaning low concern and 9 meaning high concern. Therefore, there are totally 81 leadership styles. However, the most effective style, according to Blake and Mutton, is team-management (9,9) because the leaders can raise the productivity and work morale through displaying supportive behavior toward subordinates.
These theories had been widely accepted and used from 1940s to 1960s because they, especially the managerial grid, catered to the unprecedented increasing value orientation of Small Power Distance and Strong Masculinity in U.S. at that time. As we can find, the managerial grid is based on the subordinates’ participation in the manager’s decision and the manager’s support for the subordinates in performance. In U.S., decentralization of leadership is popular and the ideal boss is a resourceful democrat. Subordinates expect to be consulted without fearing the failure of the work. However, Chinese, brought up in a culture of Large Power Distance and Strong Uncertainty Avoidance, tend to believe in the solid hierarchy organizations. The leaders in China tend to make decisions themselves and give orders, while the subordinates is prone to waiting for the leaders to make decisions and obeying. Therefore, it is hardly possible for Chinese leaders to raise the subordinates’ productivity and work morale through supporting them to participate in the decision-making.
3.2. 2Management By Objectives
3.2.2.1 Cultural Analysis of Management By Objectives
The theory of management by objectives, as Peter Drucker stated, is the management theory that has packaged and formalized the U.S. approach to leadership. After its birth, MBO has been widely spread and exerted profound influence in numerous organizations in U.S
Management by objectives (MBO), first advocated by Peter Drucker in 1955 in his The Practice of Management, was “ the first book to recognize management as a whole” (Peter Drucker,1955:6). It is a method whereby managers and employees define goals for every department, project, and person and use them to monitor subsequent performance (George S. Odiorne, 1978:121). This theory has been studied and improved and polished by American companies as well as management theorists all the time after its birth. A model of the essential steps of the MBO process is presented in Table 3.7
Table 3.7.Model of the MBO Process
Source: Richare L. Daft, Management--4th ed. —Printed—Beijing: Machinery Publishing House, 1998, p225.
According to Peter Drucker, four major activities must occur in order for MBO to be successful (Jan P. Muczyk and Bernard C.Reimann, 1989)
The first step is setting goals, which is the most difficult step in MBO. Drucker presents that the step of setting goals must involve employees at all levels and make them look beyond day-to-day activities to answer the question “What are we trying to accomplish?” The second step is developing action plans to achieve the stated goals. These action plans are made for both individuals and departments. The third step is reviewing progress, which is also adopted by both employees and managers to see whether they are on target or whether corrective action is necessary. The last step, appraising overall performance, is to carefully evaluate whether annual goals have been achieved for both individuals and department. Success or failure to achieve their goals can become part of the employee performance appraisal system and the designation of salary increases and other rewards. (W. Giegold, 1978:102)
These four steps, as we can see, clearly reflect American dimension of Small Power Distance. As discussed above, due to Small Power Distance, Americans value equality very much. They regard hierarchy in organizations as just an inequality of roles, just established for convenience of work. Decentralization of leadership is popular there and subordinates expect to be consulted by the managers and are sufficiently independent to negotiate meaningfully with the manager. Similarly, the manager is a resourceful democrat and privileges and status symbols are frowned upon. This makes the employees have the power to set their own goals and work together with the managers to combine the goals of all the employees as the goals as the action plans of the department, and even the goals of the whole company. It also allows the employees and the managers to check their performance together to give corrective suggestions.
Another national American value system reflected in MBO is Weak Uncertainty Avoidance. In U.S., both employees and managers are willing to take risks and feel comfortable in ambiguous situations. Excerpt some necessary ones, they don’t like too much rules and regulations and have a high tolerance of deviant and innovative ideas and behavior. Managers are not afraid of the uncertainty of success for allowing the employees to set their goals. Neither are the employees, because they tend to take risks to work in ambiguous situations. In addition, Drucker’s MBO also reflects the national value system of Strong Masculinity of the U.S.A. In the U.S.A., dominant values in society are material success and progress. Competition among colleagues is highly stressed and performance is highly appraised. Therefore, the employees tend to work hard to achieve their goals for success and material things without too much direction from the managers. Thus both the managers and the employees can accept the final step on MBO as the employee performance appraisal system and the designation of salary increases and other rewards.
3.2.2.2 Application of MBO
Like other theories, the application of MBO to Chinese also depends on its successful cultural synergy. Because of Large Power Distance, Chinese tend to regard hierarchy in their organizations as the existential inequality between higher-ups and lower-downs. The popular leadership is centralization and subordinates expect to be told what to do. The ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat or a good father and privileges and status symbols for managers are both expected and popular. Kurt Lewin found that the participative techniques and majority rule decision making were used by the democratic leader, but not the autocratic leader, who always delegated authority to employees, trained and involved group members so much that the employees performed well with or without the leader present. These characteristics of democratic leadership of the Americans explain why the empowerment of lower employees is a popular trend in their companies today. But in China, managers are used to giving orders and the subordinates are used to taking. Therefore, it would be very hard for Chinese managers to adopt MBO by direct delegating power to the employees to set their own goals, let alone let the employees set the goals for the department. Similarly, the Chinese employees would not like to take the power to set their own goals and the goals for the department, even if they got the power from the managers, because they believe that it is the power of the managers to plan and direct, as is not suitable for them to touch.
Besides, Chinese feel uncertainty inherent in life as a continuous threat which must be fought, owing to the national value system of Strong Uncertainty Avoidance. They can accept familiar risks, but fear of ambiguous situations and of unfamiliar risks. This makes the employees tend to “keep what they have” (Jia Yu Xin, 2002:88) and dare not to set goals that they are not sure to fulfill. On the other hand, the belief in “What is different, is dangerous” and the habitual suppression of deviant ideas and behavior of the managers make managers not willing to let the employees produce action plans by themselves for fear of the employees’ plans contradictory to their own.
Another Chinese value system contradictory to American is Weak Masculinity. Dominant values in Chinese society are caring for others and preservation. What is important for them is warm relations, harmony and “face”, not the material things. Everybody is supposed to be modest and should show sympathy for the weak. Severe competition with each other is not “noble”. Therefore it is hard for Chinese employees to adopt the step of appraising overall performance to carefully evaluate whether annual goals have been achieved for both individuals and department, nor can they accept the final step as the employee performance appraisal system and the designation of salary increases and other rewards.
Consequently, according to the Chinese characteristics of leadership and subordinateship, Chinese organizations should first make managers at high levels draft the general annual strategy of the organization to ensure the managers’ need of power centralization. Then the managers can distribute the general plan to the employees for their opinion and make the employees draft their own plans according to the organization’s general goals. Every employee’s goal may be different from one another but they must be sure to set their goals in accordance with the general goals and fulfill their goals by the end of the year. The general goals can be corrected through the feedback of the employees. In this way, every employee’s initiative is stimulated through drafting his own goal without the feeling of loss and disgracing the leader’s “face”, because each sets his goal in accordance with the organization’s guidance.
Besides, with the general goals made from the high levels, the managers won’t be afraid that their subordinates’ goals are too deviant and innovative, because the subordinates now have a limitation, which has made the situation not so ambiguous. Nor would the managers fear the responsibility that they have to take as result of their subordinates’ failure of setting the goals because these orders are now out of the high ranking managers, who would take the responsibility. This makes the situation further unambiguous, resulting in the smoother way of applying the theory.
As a synergy of Uncertainty Avoidance, the managers should also frequently try to push the employees to finish their goals and make the employee more proactive and be more performance-biased, even if the subordinates have set their own goals according to the organization’s strategy. In addition to the salary increases and promotion for the employees who have finished their own goals on time, the managers should also express much more praise and caring to comfort the excellent employees just like TCL Group did.
When applying MBO, TCL Group advocated “the employee participation in decision-making and setting their goals,” because the leaders found, “under the current situation in China, the traditional centralization of authority will be harmful to the long-term development of the Group.” At the same time, TCL did not apply Drucker’s “achievement policy” mechanically, but paid much more attention to Chinese traditional value of “fear of ambiguous situation” and “emphasizing contribution and warm relations”. The Group advocated “making employees share the goals with the company and struggle for the common goals.” Through this, TCL fulfilled the purpose of making the company and the employee “share the same fate” and striving for the mutual benefits altogether.
3.2.3 Situational Leadership Theory
3.2.3.1 Cultural Analysis of Situational Leadership Theory
Situational leadership theory is presented by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard and based on Fiedler’s Contingency Theory (Daft, 1998:201). It is a widely accepted leadership model in a large number of companies in such top Fortune 500 American companies as BankAmerica, Caterpillar and IBM and also accepted in the U.S. Army. (Stephen, 2001:101) More than previous American leadership theories, Hersey and Blanchard’s approach focuses a great deal of attention on subordinates, reflecting American dimensions of Small Power Distance and Strong Masculinity. This theory presents that leader’s success rely on the correct choice of leadership styles according to the readiness of employees. Hersey and Blanchard defined readiness as an individual’s ability and will to be responsible for his direct behaviors. It includes two elements: task readiness and physiological readiness. The former involves with an individual’s knowledge and ability. An individual high in task readiness means that he has enough knowledge, ability, and experience to finish his own work without other’s direction. This, as we can see, is the result of the prevailing value of high performance influenced by Strong Masculinity in the U.S.A. Hersey and Blanchard’s physiological readiness involves an individual’s will and motivation. One high in physiological readiness means that he doesn’t need too much external encouragement, for they are stimulated by their internal motivation, which reflects the dimension of Weak Uncertainty Avoidance.
Table 3.8 The Situational Theory of Leadership
Source: Paul Hersey, Situational Selling (Escondido,CA.,Center for Leadership Studies, Inc.,1985)
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard further clarify subordinates into four stages from low to high: as shown in Table 3.8 unable and unwilling, unable but willing, able but unwilling, and able and willing. The best is R4, the able and willing. Hersey and Blanchard used two leadership dimensions similar to Fiedler’s: task behavior and relationship behavior, but they moved further. They believed every dimension can be low and high too. Thus they presented the following four specific leadership styles, as shown together with four stages of follower readiness: Telling (high task—low relationship); Selling (high task—high relationship); Participating (low task —high relationship) and Delegating (low task —low relationship). These four leadership styles, actually, tells about the degree of power that the leaders should adopt according to different situations of the subordinates.
Hersey and Blanchard presents that American leaders should adopt the telling leadership style to order and force subordinates who are not able or willing, to finish a job, while adopt the selling style to provide directive and supportive behavior to the subordinates who are unable but willing to finish a job. The leaders should use supportive and nondirective participating style to make decisions together with subordinates in order to stimulate their work morale, when the subordinates are able but unwilling to finish a job. Lastly, in the fourth stage, leaders should use little power but just delegate subordinates to finish by themselves, as these subordinates are willing and able to finish the job.
We can see here that it is the American national value system of Small Power Distance, Strong Masculinity and Weak Uncertainty Avoidance that make the theory possible, especially the leadership styles of participating and delegation. Because of the Small Power Distance, the leaders can reduce their power in organizations without losing their dignity or interfering with the productivity of the work while the subordinates can take the power and finish the job by themselves with little help of the leaders. Besides, the influence of Strong Masculinity and Weak Uncertainty Avoidance also make the subordinates aggressive and self-motivated to accomplish the job without too much worry about their failures.
3.2.3.2 Application of Situational Leadership Theory
Because of the different Chinese cultural values of subordinates’ readiness, this theory can only be partially applied to Chinese organizations.
China, as discussed above, is a country of Weak Masculinity and Strong Uncertainty Avoidance. People emphasize harmony and tend to “ keep what they have.” They believe relationships are much more important than materials without advocating competition and achievement. Therefore, a Chinese subordinate high in task readiness means that he has enough knowledge, ability, and experience to finish the work together with his colleagues. Too high performance of his would make his colleagues lose their “faces” and consequently hinders the productivity and the effective management of the organizations. Besides, a Chinese subordinate high in physiological readiness means that he needs a lot of external encouragement, such as needs of belongings, excellent working conditions and stable employment to motivate them.
Upon these different subordinates’ readiness, different leadership styles should be adopted. What’s more, the contingency in this theory emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership relies on whether subordinates accept or refuse the leaders: whatever the leader does, the effectiveness of his leadership relies on the subordinates’ activities. This, of course, reflects the typical value of Small Power Distance of American culture. From the model, we can find that American leaders use their power and give directions only in the first two stages when subordinates are unable to finish the task. The last two stages are just directed by followers themselves through leaders’ participating and delegating. These kinds of leadership styles are hardly possible in China as a country of Large Power Distance. In these situations, as we have discussed above, Chinese leaders won’t delegate nor will the followers direct themselves.
Therefore, while applying this situational leadership theory to Chinese organizations, leaders should give more directions and motivation to the subordinates. They surely should adopt the telling style to order the subordinates of R1 what to do, when to do and how to do and adopt the selling style to provide the subordinates of R2 with experiences and skills of accomplishing the job. They could adopt the participating style, to some degree, to stimulate the work morale of the subordinates of R3. But, leaders should not only make the subordinates feel that they are just participating in the leadership for “the work’s sake”. They should make the subordinates understand they are working for the same group’s benefit for higher salary, long-term employment. As for subordinates of R4, suitable delegation is acceptable but the work of R4 should be under the leader’s control. And a leader should also, once in a while, ask about the progress of the subordinates’ work to check whether they are on the right track. In this way, the leader also shows his caring for the subordinates and his satisfaction with the subordinates’ pro-activity and high ability. At this stage, delegating totally the whole job to the Chinese subordinates is dangerous, because the job is possible to be out of the right track and above all, the subordinates will feel lost and even feel they are discarded by the leader.
3.2.4 Leader Participation Model
3.2.4.1 Cultural Analysis of Leader Participation Model
In 1973, Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton presented the leader participation model, indicating the relationship between the leader’s behavior and subordinate participation in decision making. This theory is widely used in American companies and verified to be quite effective by other American management theorists. This model greatly advocates subordinate participation in decision making. It employs five levels of subordinate participation in decision making ranging from highly autocratic to highly democratic. They are: Autocratic I(AI); Autocratic II (AII);Consultative I(CI) ;Consultative II (CII) and Group Decision II (GII). Autocratic leadership styles are represented in the levels of AI and AII, in which the leaders make the decision of management by themselves. Consulting styles are represented in the levels of CI and CII, in which the leaders collect the information from the subordinates and then consult their opinions about the decision-making. In the last level of (G), the democratic leaders discuss the problem with the subordinates and make the decision based on the agreement of both the leaders and the subordinates. The most desirable level is G, as is emphasized again later by Vroom and Jago in 1988, when modifying the model.
The details are as followings:
Autocratic I(AI)__The managers solve the problem or make the decision themselves using information available to them at that time.
Autocratic II (AII)__ The managers obtain the necessary information from their subordinates and then decide on the solution to the problem themselves.
Consultative I(CI)___ The managers share the problem with relevant subordinates individually, getting their ideas and suggestions without bringing them together as a group. Then the managers make the decision. Their decisions may or may not be influenced by the subordinates.
Consultative II(CII)__ The managers share the problem with their subordinates as a group, collectively obtaining their suggestions and ideas. The managers make the decision. Their decision may or may not be influenced by the subordinates.
Group Decision (G)__ The managers share the problem with their subordinates as a group, they, with their subordinates together, propose or evaluate feasible schemes and endeavor to obtain the common solution.
This theory, as we can see, was out of the call of participation in managing organizations by the American employees in 1970s and 1980s, which actually reflects the American cultural dimension of Individualism and Small Power Distance. As we have discussed, the US.A. is the most individualistic country in the world. After their birth, American people begin to learn to be self-reliant and self-sufficient. They believe, mainly influenced by their religion of Puritanism, everything is created by God to satisfy their own interest individually, including family, school, workplaces, churches, and even state. Therefore, they naturally tend to express their opinions about the management through participation in the decision making so as to cause their organizations to serve them for their interest at the best. Consequently, the leaders’ power should be limited. In an organization, a leader who shares the problem with his subordinates as a group, collectively obtaining their suggestions and ideas would be a good leader. And the one, who shares the problem with his subordinates as a group and then proposes or evaluates feasible schemes and endeavors to obtain the common solution together with the subordinates, would be the most desirable.
3.2.4.2 Application of the Leader Participation Model
Chinese, born into extended families and greatly influenced by “Confucianism”, believe the family, especially “the father”, will protect them provided they are loyal to their family. Other ingroups, such as school, organizations and state will continue to play the role of family after they enter their adulthood. Thus, the involvement with organizations is moral. Relationship between employer-employee is perceived in moral terms, like a family link, and hiring and promotion decisions take employee’s ingroup account. If they are not loyal to the organization, their possibility of promotion is very little. Consequently, the organization, as another “family”, must be harmonious and direct confrontations between “brothers and sisters” should be avoided. The best way to keep the harmony in the “family” is to keep the hierarchy in the organization——the tradition of “wu lun”.(五伦)The confrontations with the leader should be particularly avoided, because the leader is the “father” in the organization, who regulates the normal order of the “family.” Therefore, leaders in China tend to make decisions by themselves and then give orders to the subordinates, who tend to rely on the leaders to order them. Even if they got the chance to express their opinions about the management of the organization, the subordinates would feel lost and could hardly be direct and express their true ideas to participate in the decision making.
Therefore, AI and AII can be applied easily to Chinese organizations, because we can find these two leadership styles in China. The application of consulting leadership style, CI and CII, is also possible in Chinese organizations. However, while applying these styles, the leader should share the problem with relevant subordinates individually, getting their ideas and suggestions without bringing them together as a group, or if possible, with a group. Then he makes the decision. The leader’s decision may or may not be influenced by the subordinates. It is also possible for the leader and the subordinates make the decision together in some specific situations. But the Group style should be adopted with caution, because it does not confine with the Chinese national value system of Large Powder Distance and Strong Collectivism.
3.3 Applying American Organization Theories to Chinese Organizations through Cultural Synergy
3.3.1Cultural Analysis of American Organization Principles
The third important part of management is organizing. Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals. The deployment of resources is reflected in the origination’s division of labor into specific departments and jobs, formal lines of authority, and mechanisms for coordinating diverse organization tasks. While strategy defines what to do, organizing defines how to do. Organizations structure is a tool that managers use to harness resources for getting things done. It is so important that a great number of American principles and theories about it have been produced.
Organization structure is the set of formal tasks assigned to individuals and departments; formal reporting relationships, including lines of authority, decision responsibility, the number of hierarchical levels, span of managers’ control and the design of systems to ensure effective coordination of employees across departments. (John A. Byre, 1984). Organization structure, according to Stephen Robbins (2001:205), has several fundamental characteristics. They are: complexity, formalization and centralization. These characteristics, of course, are reflections of American cultural values and should be applied to Chinese organizations through cautious cultural synergy. Complexity, as Robbins suggests, means the extent of an organization’s division. Formalization is the written documentation used to direct and control employees, which includes rulebooks, policies, procedures, job descriptions and regulations. The dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance in the country, which the organizations are located, conditions this characteristic. In a country of Weak Uncertainty Avoidance as U.S., formalization is also weak, for people there are much more flexible and tolerant to ambiguous situations. But in a country of Strong Uncertainty Avoidance as China, formalization is very strong, because both employees and leaders want things certain so that they can work without worrying about their mistakes or future failures. Another characteristic of organization structure is Centralization, which pertains to the hierarchical level at which decisions are made. Centralization means that decision authority is located near the top of the organization, closely connected with the dimension Large Power Distance, which is characteristic of China. With decentralization popular in U.S as country of Small Power Distance, decision authority is pushed downward to lower organization levels.
3.3.2.1 Unity of Command
When managers establish or change an organization’s structure, they are performing organization design, a process of which is determined by a cluster of culture-conditioned principles. Here, with cultural glasses, we will look at American management theorists’ ideas on three most important principles of organization design: unity of command, authority, and span of control.
Stephen P. Robinns (2001:208) presents that unity of command of each employee responsible for only one supervisor was the idea of the classical theorists. According to him, the contemporary American theorists believe that this principle hinders the organizations from achieving. They believe, under many present circumstances, an employee should simultaneously report to two or more supervisors as to increase the productivity and efficiency of the organization. Here, as we can see, one cultural reason for their idea of holding more than one supervisor for an employee is the American dimension of Small Power Distance. In U.S., as we have discussed above, a hierarchy in organizations means just an inequality of roles, being established for convince to work. Decentralization is popular in their organizations. Therefore, it is possible for American employees to listen to more than one supervisor without hindering the hierarchy in the organization or causing disorders of leadership. However, in China as a country of Large Power Distance, the violation of unity of command is off the record or even dangerous for Chinese organizations. Due to the influence of Large Power Distance, a hierarchy in Chinese organizations reflects the existential inequality between higher-ups and lower-downs. The popular leadership is centralization. If there were two leaders or even more, subordinates would feel lost and not know whose orders to follow. The manager would be angry with subordinates who didn’t obey his orders and also be angry with other managers too, because these managers reduced his power.
Another cultural dimension reflected in this principle is Individualism. In a country of Individualism as U.S., people tend to be self-reliant and self-managed. The subordinates are not dependent on the leader but tend to participate in the management proactively. The duty of managers is to support the subordinates. Besides, in U.S., people believe “business is business”, which has little connection with relationships. If the subordinates get help from one leader, it doesn’t mean another leader’s “face” is hurt. Therefore, the employees can accomplish the work with the supportive behaviors of two or more leaders. But, in China as a country of Collectivism, a subordinate and a leader tend to be interdependent to each other as members of in-group. If the subordinate listens to the order from a leader of outgroup, he hurts the “face” of the ingroup’s leader as well as the outgroup leader’s and destroy the “harmony” of the organization, resulting in low productivity and efficiency.
3.3.2.2 Authority
Another important principle of organization design for American theorists is authority. According to Daft (2001), many contemporary American theorists do not regard authority as the only source of power inherent in the position in the organization any longer. American researchers have found that one can have power without being an administrator, because power in such a country of Small Power Distance as U.S.A., is not nowadays necessarily connected with one’s position in the organization. American theorists, John French and Bertram Raven, out of this dimension, identified five sources of power: coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent power.( J. R. P. French, Jr., and B. Raven, 1960:298)
Coercive power, according to French and Raven, comes from a subordinate’s fears of the negative influence of his disobeying the manager’s order, while reward power comes from the reward of money, and promotion through obeying leaders’ requirements or orders. Legitimate power comes from authority. It represents the power obtained from the position in the official level in the organization. All the three powers connect with the position, and, as we can see, seem to be valid both in the U.S. and China. The only difference we can see here is that a hierarchy in American organizations is just for convenience for organizing, but a hierarchy in Chinese organizations reflects the existential inequality between higher-ups and lower-downs. Another power is expert power, which comes from the special skills and knowledge. These people with such power, according to French and Raven, can be leaders as well as subordinates. With the fast development of technology, the expert power is becoming an increasing effective power in American organizations. This, of course, is also out of the dimension of Small power Distance of the U.S. In a country of Large Power Distance as China, experts do have some influence in the organizations, but most of the time, their ideas are just regarded as consultative and usually ignored by the leaders who have “actual power” derived from their position in the organization. The last power presented by John French and Bertram Raven is referent power, which comes from one’s favor of someone else’s particular wisdom or personal traits. According to them, anyone with the charisma can influence others, including leaders, colleagues, and subordinates. However, this kind of power can hardly exist in a country of Large Power Distance as China.
3.3.2.3 Span of Control
Another important American principle of organization design is span of control. Tom Peters (2001), a PHD from Stanford Business School, supports the wide span of control. He rejects the principle of narrow span of control, because he believes that a wide span of control, by cutting a large amount of management cost, is highly productive. In late 1980s, Tom Peters predicted that Westinghouse, with a organization of 12 levels will be defeated by Wal-Mart, because the latter’s span of control is so large that it only has three levels of management. Peters’ words became true in 1992.
The wide span of control, as we can see, is based on the American dimension of Small Power Distance and Individualism, which causes American employees to be self-sufficient and self-disciplined with little control of the leaders. However, in a country of Large Power Distance and Collectivism as China, people are used to the narrow span of control upon which the subordinates and the leaders are interdependent. Therefore, the wide span of control in Chinese organizations will decrease the power and prestige of the leaders and simultaneously make the subordinates feel lost, leading to low productivity.
3.3.3 TQM as a Tool of Organization Design
3.3.3.1 Cultural Analysis of TQM as a Tool of Organization Design
Many American fundamental concepts and principles of organization design discussed above have become important elements in W. Edwards Deming’s Total Quality Management theory. Today, TQM, which focused on managing the total organization to deliver goods of high quality to customers, is at the forefront in helping American managers deal with global competitors.
According to Deming, four significant elements of total quality management are: employee involvement, (Bounds, Dobbins, and Fowler, 1995:256) meaning companywide participation in quality control; focus on the customer to find out what the customer wants; benchmarking, (Jeremy Main, 1992) a process whereby companies find out how other companies do something better than they do and then try to imitate or improve it. A large number of American companies, including AT&T, are constantly benchmarking. The last one is continuous improvement to produce long-term results. Motorola is a good example of continuous improvement. (Brain Dumaine, 1995)
Together with these elements, there are three main characteristics of TQM. They are the decrease of vertical variations, the reduction of work specialization and decentralization. These three characteristics, as we can see, are the typical reflection of American cultural dimension of Small Power Distance, Strong Individualism and Weak Uncertainty Avoidance. The success of TQM actually depends on focusing on the customers, which requires the organization to respond quickly and continually to the customers’ demand. The focusing on the customers needs the organization to delegate power and authority to the lower rank employees and, particularly, to the customers, as much as possible. The company wide participation in quality control requires the organization to decrease vertical variations of management and broaden the span of control so as to create “flater” organization, where only employees with self-reliance and self-management can make it. Benchmarking and continuous improvement needs the effective transverse communication among employees and managers. Hence, the work specialization, which is easy to shape the gulf and divarication, must be reduced. Under this structure, employees must be very pro-active to coordinate with others. In a country as U.S. highly appraising competition and work achievement, employees as well as managers in organizations tend to compete with others all the time to improve the quality of products so as to achieve and fulfill their self-actualization.
3.3.3.2 Application of TQM
As we have discussed above, China is a country of Large Power Distance. Owing to this, employees and managers in China are accustomed to working in a vertical organization with centralization. A lot of Chinese organizations are like pyramids, managers at the peak to give orders to the employees at the foot of the pyramids. Chinese employees are used to this kind of vertical organization and feel uncomfortable with the “flat” structure of TQM. Because of Strong Collectivism and Strong Uncertainty Avoidance, Chinese people are used to the narrow span of control and specific work specialization. The specialization makes the subordinates and the leaders useful to one another and interdependent. Through this way, the harmonious organization of hierarchy is kept and everyone stays in the suitable post. If the work specialization is reduced, the employees and managers, who are afraid of ambiguous situations, will feel lost and be unable to benchmark and improve their service and the quality of the product.
TQM’s requirement of establishing “flat” organization structure and decentralization of management cannot be mechanically adopted, but culturally integrated. While applying TQM, Chinese organizations can become “flater”, but the levels of the structure must be kept within a limit for the convenience to supply the leaders with power so as to satisfy the dimension of Large Power Distance. The establishment of decentralization should also be kept within a suitable limit. The power should not be directly delegated to the lowest level of structure and let the employees manage the organization, let alone the customers, because it will easily cause disorder in the organization. In addition, work specialization should also be kept within some limitation to balance the organization and keep the harmonious hierarchy of the organization.
3.3.4 Cultural Analysis of Contemporary American Organization Structures
3.3.4.1 Mechanistic Organization
Most popular American organizations are designed according to the contemporary organization theories as organic organizations. The former mechanistic organization out of classical theories is no longer the “ideal” organization fitting all the present American circumstances. (Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker, 1961) These two kinds of mechanistic organizations are contrasted in Table 3.9.
Table 3.9 Mechanistic Organizations
Mechanistic organization is the result of the traditional American designing theories. When the structure is vertical with many levels of management, it is mechanic. The mechanic organization emphasizes vertical control. Tasks are broken into routine jobs and are rigidly defined. Voluminous rules exist, and the hierarchy of authority is the major form of control. Decision making is centralized, and communications is vertical. This kind of organization, except some very large companies, is becoming fewer and fewer in U.S. with its cultural dimensions of Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance becoming smaller and weaker. There are two approaches of mechanic organizations: functional and divisional as shown in Table 3.9 Functional approach groups people together in departments by common skills and work activities, such as in an engineering department and an accounting department. Few American organizations are adopting this approach right now owing to its characteristic of centralization, but many medium-sized Chinese organizations are using this approach because of its adaptability to Chinese cultural dimensions of Large Power Distance and Strong Uncertainty Avoidance. Another approach is divisional approach, which occurs when departments are grouped together into separate, self-contained divisions based on a common product, program, or geographical region. Diverse skills rather than similar skills are the basis of departmentalization. Its degree of centralization is lower than the former and has been adopted in many American multinationals since it was first created by General Motors and Du Pont in 1920s.
While in China, this approach is being adopted by an increasing number of organizations, especially after 1990s with the development of market economy and reduction of power centralization. The most successful Chinese manufacturer adopting this divisional approach is Haier. Jerry Marlom found that Hairer did learn the structure design principle of “decentralization and delegation” from GE. But Haier also found that the highly decentralization of GE’s structure is not suitable to Haier, because it will reduce the power of the headquarters to control the divisions and make the divisions compete with each other blindly. Then, Haier , while abiding by the principle of “flat structure”, adopted the mechanism of “combined fleet”. The Group Headquarters, as the “flag fleet”, controls the divisions through planning. This assures the authority and power to be kept at the Headquarters, suitable to Chinese dimension of Large Power Distance. The divisions are also delegated. They can “ fight according to their specific situations”, but cannot “rule themselves without obeying the orders from the headquarters”. Through this approach, Haier causes both the headquarters and the divisions to work on the basis of the Chinese value of “respecting the authority”, realizing the principle of centralization as well as flexibility.
3.4.4.2 Organic organizations
In U.S., horizontal structures dominate near 90% enterprises, most of which are medium or small-sized. This kind of structure is called organic (Frank Shipper and Charles C. Manz, 1992). In an organization of organic structure, tasks are frequently redefined to fit employee and environmental needs. There are few rules, and authority is based on expertise rather than hierarchy. Decision making is decentralized. Communication is horizontal and facilitated through the use of task forces, teams, and integrators as well as through new computer information systems that enable employees to share information. Simple structure is used in 94% of American enterprises because of its flexibility. This kind of structure can be applied to small Chinese enterprises, especially some private-owned ones, by keeping the power centralized within the hand of the bosses. Another important horizontal structure in U.S. is Matrix approach (Lawton R. Burns, 1989), which is now widely adopted in large American companies. With matrix approach, functional and divisional chains of command are implemented simultaneously and overlay one another in the same departments. Two chains of command exist, and some employees report to tow bosses. This kind of structure, because of its relatively higher degree of decentralization and requirement for the employees’ self – reliance, is easily to break the unity of command and throw the organization into disorder. Therefore, it should be applied with caution in China as country of Large Power Distance and Weak Uncertainty Avoidance. There are also two new approaches popular in U.S. right now. They are: Team approach and Network approach. The later will be the trend in the future. Network approach (Raymond E. Miles, 1989) occurs when the organization becomes a small, central broker electronically connected to other organizations that perform vital functions. With the development of network in China, this network approach is being adopted by some particular companies of software, architecture design and media. Three major approaches are shown in Table3.10
Table 3.10 Organic Organizations
Conclusion
It is necessary for China to have its own modern management thoughts and theories to tackle the growing competition brought by ever increasing globalization. To do this, we surely have to study and adopt sophisticated management theories from other countries, especially from the United States, which has been the largest producer of management theories during the past century and will probably continue to be in this century.
And we should learn them flexibly. The purpose for us to introduce American management theories is, of course, to successfully apply them to Chinese organizations to direct their management practices. To make this clear is very important, because not all Chinese entrepreneurs have realized it. They simply used these theories without any doubt of their applicability, for the American theorists drafting these theories have always been declaring that their theories are universally valid. But, are they? Actually, everything in our human society is culturally conditioned. People see the world in the way they have learned to see it. Only to a limited extent can they, in their thinking, step out of the boundaries imposed by their cultural conditioning. This applies to the author of a theory as much as it does to the ordinary citizen: Theories reflect the cultural environment in which they were written. Written by American theorists, these American management theories were abstracted from American management practices and reflected an American culture background. Unlike the hard data from measurable issues, culture is soft and slippery; we can’t really grasp culture in our two hands and understand what we have got. But it exists. In every theory of motivation, leadership and organization the American cultural values are woven. These American values of individualism, competition, achievement, risk-taking and power-challenging have been soaked in all the principles and rules of their management theories. Finding out these values in the principles and rules, seeking their similarities to Chinese values and combining the differences based on the similarities seem to be the inevitable approach we have to adopt to successfully apply these American theories to our organizations. This approach is called cultural synergy.
Fortunately, the United States and China, though having a lot of cultural differences, do have similar core values for us to put as the basis of cultural synergy. And besides, China, as a country of high-synergy fundamentally, has long been an opened system for embracing other cultures and theories developed in them. These factors make the cultural synergy possible.
Through the approach of cultural synergy, we will eventually be able to adopt the essentials of the American motivation, leadership and organizations theories and successfully apply them to our organizations to boom our economy and society. But this kind of study won’t be easy. It is a big subject consuming time and energy. All the ideas and analyses presented in this thesis, though some of them have been verified in some cases, are simply the author’s argument about the subject. It is believed to be helpful for the successful adoption of American prime management theories and beneficial to the development of our own Chinese management theories and thought.
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